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Obama merece elogios por su vision inspiradora; pero a menos que se produzcan mayores cambios reales, nuestras esperanzas acabarán perdiéndose. Sólo podrá Obama cumplir su promesa si la acompaña de acciones valientes y transformadoras a favor de la paz. La historia juzgará entonces si este premio es merecido.
Firma ahora la Petición Obama por la Paz y la entregaremos directamente a la Casa Blanca; reenvíala después a tus amigos y familiares:
http://www.avaaz.org/es/obama_
Centro Knight Periodismo Universidad de Texas:
Muchas compañías periodísticas corren el riesgo de fracasar a menos que comiencen a cobrar a sitios como Google, Yahoo y Facebook por usar sus contenidos, dijo el magnate Rupert Murdoch a varios líderes de la prensa mundial reunidos en Beijing, reportó Sky News. (La agencia EFE tiene esta nota en español.)
"Los agregadores [de noticias] y los plagiadores pronto tendrán que pagar el precio por [utilizar] nuestro contenido", dijo Murdoch en la Cumbre Mundial de Medios. "Pero si no nos aprovechamos de la tendencia actual hacia los contenidos pagados, serán los creadores de contenido —la gente en este salón— los que pagarán el precio, y los cleptómanos de contenido los que vencerán".
The degree of an artistic´s talent is reflected in his capacity to heed the voice of truth, to avoid thrusting upon his images and characters development out of keeping with their essential nature or dealing in artificial structures, and finally to be sensitive barometer in relation to the life of his character or image in the process.
Characters act independently, the artist merely notes down their words. What does this mean?
This means that the logic of characters lives cannot be subordinated to subjectivist whims. Yet investigation of real life, the transformation of phenomena found in it into artistic characters and images demands a good deal of complex work on the part of the artist. It is in the subjective elements of his work that an artist´s creative activity comes to the fore, his aesthetic individuality and his social attitudes. This means that the subjective content of the image or character.
Not only the artistic image its appreciation is shaped by the unity of the objective and subjective factors. This goes a long way towards explaining the fact that in artistic practice images and characters are not always delineated with complete clarity and precision. In a work of art there are often a good number of gaps, sometimes the picture of life provided is not sufficiently detailed; Sometimes the artist poses questions rather than supplies answers to them. He hopes, however, that man´s imagination, which the work of art has stimulated, will enable him to become its co-creator. While an image created by the artist is being apprehended it is, as it were, being supplemented by the imagination of reader, beholder or listener. He introduces to it those aspects which are still absent, adding his vision and thereby extending the limits of the reflection of life and supplementing the subjective element contributed by the artist with his own. True apprehension and appreciation of art are always of an active, creative nature. In order to go more deeply into this matter and achieve greater clarity, it would be useful to compare artistic generalization with scientific. We shall see first, examine the special features and main regulators of art and science as forms of activity.
Scientific, theoretical activity, and its forming and functioning, are determined and governed by such epistemological controls as truth, applicability in practice, sometimes through an aggregate of other theories, and the logic of the object, i.e. the appropriate patterns relations of objects of the surrounding world and in the trends of their development. These controls are absent in artistic creation and its products. Truth as a reproduction of reality, in the sense of its sense of its reflection ( with which we are concerned in science ), is replaced by artistic truth in works. It may be contained in fairy tales, fables, and other works of art with patently imaginary subjects, non-existent situations, personages, and events; recall Goethe´s Faust or Dante´s Divine Comedy, in which various fantastic creatures, act.
A writer constructs most artistic images, personages and situations from study and knowledge of the life and its contradictions, and of the characters he meets in it. Knowledge in art, moreover, whatever form it takes, is inseparable from the experience that permeates the whole process of artistic assimilation of the world. These personages and situations invented by an artists, even if they not exist objectively in the form in which they are represented in artistic works, are quite real in the sense that they were drawn ultimately from real life; certain element of the most fantastic images, for instance, are taken from life, and then freely combined and considerably modified. But the creativity of novelist and other writers differs from scientific activity.
The objective Logic reflected in sciences is replaced in art, as a rule, by artistic sense, which is the controller of the development of the action in artistic works ( maybe historical themes it will be an exception ). Now, what is meant by artistic sense? A sharp distinction is made in logic between the terms meaning and sense. Meaning is what is denoted, while sen sense is the means by which this denotation is expressed, represented, put across, and conceived. In its constructive-cognitive aspect, sense can be defined as the modes of describing and interpreting that is fixed in language, and as the determination of these modes by the aims, precepts, and tasks of the subject who is carrying on a scientific investigation, which are always limited by the context of objective facts and laws. This concept of sense is based on the logic of the object studied and the logic of cognition.
By artistic sense is meant that mode of depicting, representing, and expressing a situations in artistic, poetic language, which is determined (a) by the ideas, intentions, and ideals of the artist ( which have a social nature ) and by his ideological and psychological orientations, and also by the object of the depiction; and ( b ) by the simultaneous striving to evoke social feeling through the aesthetic in the addressee and to influence his behavior.
The educative function of art is realized on that basis, its fulfillment presupposes knowledge in the artist of what is depicted, knowledge of life, and of what underlies realization of the cognitive function of art.
Artistic sense in that understanding of it determines the choice of what is depicted, the interest in it, its transformations and distortions, its relation to artistic achievements of the past, and the development and interpretation of what is depicted. It underlies the forming of artistic work as an original, unique masterpiece of artistic culture.
This sense is not determined in the general case by the objective logic of what is depicted. In artistic literature such a technique is often employed as reversing the relations of the conditioner and the conditioned, which is not permissible in science.
Artistic creation is thus a form of constructive activity. It is manifested in clearest form, not requiring special argumentation, in music and architecture, for example. In fiction and painting the constructive activity is closely knit with the portrayal of life itself, or with those elements or this portrayal that are drawn in the last analysis from life, and from people´s various. Artistic creation is like is like technical creation, though it is not strictly determined by objective facts and laws. It must always, however, conform to certain requirements, breach of which is connected with transition from the sphere of artistic creation to another sphere of activity, for example is games whose rules are based only on agreement.
The thesis formulated above only gets a quite precise sense when aesthetics fully answers the question of what, precisely, in a form specific to art is capable of arousing aesthetic feelings and experiences. It may be objected that not only are scientific-technical and artistic creation constructive but also the purely scientific activity by which scientific theories, proofs hypotheses, etc., are created and constructed. That is so, of course. But scientific activity is determined and limited to a much greater extent by objective circumstances than scientific-technical, inventive activity and artistic creation.
The language employed in science and art plays such a different role and has developed in such different directions that one can speak of the language of science and the language of art as the phenomena different from one and other. Both have their source in the ordinary language. The language of science was formed in the first place through a terminology related to one field or science or another. Its terms were developed above all through the refinement and sometime affected, pedantic of word of the ordinary language with allowance for each term´s corresponding to one, single object within a given domain of knowledge, which meant that homonyms were eliminated from the ordinary language employed for scientific purposes. Rule of identification were introduced for various words by means of clear definitions.
The development of the ordinary language toward a scientific language presupposed its transformation in the direction of greater precision and the elimination of ambiguities, and in the direction of achieving adequacy of the description to the objects studied. The introduction into the language of formulas, and of signs for variables, that made it possible to write general dependences in simple compact form, and to introduce the concepts and apparatus of mathematics into the natural sciences, played a great role in its development. At last the so-called formalized languages of logic are the pinnacle of the language of science.
The language of fiction and belles-lettres evolved in another direction. Means developed and perfected in it that could evoke emotions and protracted aesthetic experiences in the addressee, they could give the possibility of depicting the complex, dialectical world and life of the depicted subject more deeply, that could enable the author´s intentions to be embodied in graphic form, and could also give constructive activity the freedom and persuasiveness without which artistic creation does not exist. The mediated nature and extraordinary variety of the relations between people, with their different characters, called for the creation of linguistic means by which they could be expressed in a practically infinite number of variants and contexts and, moreover, allegorically in an evocative, and informationally rich form.
In order to express the sense of beauty, writers, through literature and literary terms grow up from literalism to the language of art. So, the writer individualizes the personages in the artistic work itself and world constructed in it. With this language enriched, writers creates a gallery of images differing from one another. The same must be said of the episodes of life, situations, and circumstances he describes. These episodes and personages are not individuated by means of definite descriptions, as in science, to which the proper names correspond, but by artistic means. A major role is played here by descriptions, by the means of artistic language, of the personage´s characteristics, actions, attitude to himself and others, and of his moods, experiences, and thoughts, and his life in general. The individualization of the main characters is mush richer than that of the secondary ones. Everything that is said, for example, about the main character or other personages in a novel or story can be regarded as their individualization. It takes place throughout the work.
Certain individuated fragment of life and life situations are constructed on the basis of the individualized personages, circumstances, and events described in a work. Although the artisti´s description of immediate situations plays a major role in the process of artistic individuation, it is done through features carefully selected by the writer in the course of artistic thinking. An artist selects those features and details that are typical of such-and-such a personage and such-and-such events and circumstances. This concept of the typicalness of a description is asking to that of the essential in scientific knowledge. But while the essential is found in science in an object´s objective features, the typicalness of the persons, doings, and events described in an artistic work is determined firs and foremost by author´s plan, the inner unity of the work, and its truth to life, and the striving to achieve the maximum aesthetic effect on the addressee. These determination are essentially ideological and artistic, and depend on the sense of the work. The artist, if you like, employs a certain analogue in the process of individualization of the method of ascending from the abstract to the concrete in relation to the process of scientific knowledge.
In some partial cases a situation individuated and described in an artistic work may be drawn wholly from life; then choice of of features is associated with the seeking out of the most persuasive elements drawn from the reality described. In other cases the living facts and events only give an impulse tom the description of the situation in the artistic work, but are then supplemented by imaginary facts in accordance with ideological, artistic determinations based on the plan and sense of work.
Artistic individuation is directed and governed by them, too, when the writer is dealing with wholly fictitious situations.
There is a whole system of individualization of fiction. The so called primary-formal individualization, by which is meant the specification of personages through proper names, age, relationships with other personages. Formal individualization makes it possible, within the limits of a work, to specificate the characters and to differentiate them from one another. But that is not just characteristic of artistic creation. Before we carry out an investigation, we have to individuate, and identify, the subject interesting us from other similar objects. Individualization is a formal, necessary condition of orientation in any sphere of activity and should protect us from false identifications. Shakespeare resorted such false identification in The Merchant of Venice and A Comedy Errors.
What is know as artistic-content individualization of a work as a whole is encountered is artistic creation. With a broader approach to the essence of the matter, we can suppose the question of the individualization of a work within the context of artistic creation in general, and within the frame work of the most varied artistic works written by different authors. The artistic content of a work as a whole is individuated in general for a artistic creation only when its marked scheme is supplemented by clear, colorful, evocative ideas, reserved for the names of some of the characters, and the description not only of the actions but also of their motives and inner emotions, treated in the evolution of the characters, allowing for place and time. In works of art like opera or ballet, the inner feeling of the characters are expressed not only, and not so much in their acts and behavior as in their specific musical characteristics, and features of the production, which are aimed at evoking emotions in the addressee.
